Language Studies

Abstract Abstract The purpose of this article is to examine the possibilities of the Persian language to express disjunctive constructions according to Haspelmath (2004&2007). Although juxtaposition is a dominant way of expressing coordination, Persian language often uses coordinators to show disjunctive coordination. Generally, when there is no emphasis on the disjunctive coordinator or the type of connection between two coordinands can be interpreted by referring to the context, juxtaposition is used, which is not a dominant phenomenon to express the disjunctive coordination in Persian language. In case of using coordinators, Persian language uses three types of it, which are: simple, compound and discrete (binary). Our aim in the present study is to identify Persian disjunctive coordinators, determine their position, and investigate the sensitivity of Persian disjunctive coordinators to the category of coordinands. The data of this research consists of 48 sentences which were collected from native speakers. The findings of the research indicate that: the majority of disjunctive coordinators of Persian language are not sensitive to the category of coordinands and can be used with all kinds of phrases and clauses. Among these coordinators, some of them can express other types of coordinations in addition to disjunctive coordination, the most common of which are "va" and "o" which can be used as conjunctive, contrastive, causative and disjunctive coordinations at the same time. In this language, in addition to "or", interrogative words, adverbs related to doubt and uncertainty, as well as verb sources can also be used as disjunctive coordinators, most of which are native coordinators of the Persian language and are not borrowed from other languages. In terms of position, the disjunctive coordinators of the Persian language are used in the following ways: [A][B] , [A][co-B] , [co-A][co-B]. Key words: coordinands, coordination, disjunctive coordination, Persian language Introduction There are two ways to connect two or more units, which are "coordination" and "suboordination". Haspelmath (2004&2007) states that "coordination is a syntactic structure in which two or more identical units are merged into a larger unit. While, despite the integration, as before, they have the same meaningful relationships with the elements around them". Four types of coordination constructions can be distinguished. These four types of constructions are: conjunctive, adversative, disjunctive, and causative constructions. Disjunctive conjunction is related to a field in which an action has not happened or the speaker is not sure of doing it. The purpose of this study is to investigate disjunctive coordination in Persian. Materials & methods The method of conducting this research is descriptive qualitative. At first, we collected the equivalent constructions in the mentioned language ​​by the native speakers ​​and analyzed them. For this purpose, we asked native speakers to talk about memories or topics, and by recording their conversations and then writing them down, we extracted the required structures. To examine the possibilities of the Persian language to express disjunctive constructions, we have used Haspelmath (2004&2007). Discussion & Result Four types of coordinate construction can be distinguished. These four types of constructions are: conjunctive, adversative, disjunctive, and causative constructions. Disjunctive coordination includes events that cannot happen together and is related to a field in which an action has not happened or the speaker is not sure of doing it. Disjunctive coordinations are not as common as conjunctive coordinations.. In a written text, conjunctive coordinations have a higher frequency of occurrence than disjunctive coordinations. A disjunctive structure can express two equal possibilities without any kind of choice. Disjunctive coordinations in Persian language are divided into three categories; They are: simple, compound and discrete (binary). Persian disjunctive coordinators are formed from adverbs, verbs, and interrogative words. Both in simple and compound coordinators, if it is shifted, the sentence looks more acceptable. The phenomenon of ellipsis of repeated elements or elements that can be interpreted with respect to the first coordinand is also common in disjunctive constructions and this removal is progressive. Conclusion In creating a disjunctive relationship between two or more bases in the Persian language, both juxtaposition and coordinators are used. The most widely used disjunctive coordinator of the Persian language is "ja:", which is not sensitive to the category and is used with all phrases and clauses. Discrete coordinators are either repeating "or" or are not repeating "or" and all follow the pattern [co-A][co-B]. In addition, none of them are sensitive to the category. In addition to "ja: ... ja:", the Persian language also uses from the verb source (xa:h .... xa:h), introgative words ( tʃe .... tʃe) and adverbs related to doubt and possibility (ʃa:jad …. ʃa:jad ) as discrete disjunctive coordinators. There is another type of disjunctive conjunction in Persian language, which is also called temporal alternation. This bisyndetic coordination, which is shown by "ga:h …. ga:h" is actually similar to disjunctive conjunction and shows events that happen alternately at different times. In fact, "ga:h.... ga:h" refers to a kind of temporal relationship that indicates transformation, in which the first "ga:h" indicates a state and quality, and the second "ga:h" indicates a change in that state or quality. The simple coordinators "va" and "-o" can also be used as disjunctive coordinators in Persian language. All disjunctive coordinators in Persian, including simple, compound and discrete, can be accompanied by conjunctive coordinators "va" and "-o". In addition to "va" and "-o", the simple disjunctive coordinator "ja:" and all discrete coordinators of the Persian language can be combined with "ham". In terms of the position of coordinators, in the construction of coordinators from the four logical positions proposed by Haspelmeth (2004 and 2007), the following three positions can be imagined for disjunctive coordinators in Persian language: [A][co-B] [A][B] [co-A][co-B]

Abstract Abstract: The Avestan word daēnā- literally means “perception, vision, view, insight, self, conscience and even religion.” Yašt 16, Dēn yašt is named after daēnā māzdaiiasnī-, although in its content it is dedicated to cistā. cistā is a goddess of path. The epithets ascribed to her in the first verse of the Yašt 16 indicate her function as a guide. One of the functions of daēnā, both in Gāhān and New Avesta is her role as guide and spiritual leader. In the Sirōzag, cistā is worshipped in the day named in honor of daēnā. Yašt 10.126 makes cistā- the upamana- of the daēnā, that is to say something like her “alter ego”. Some researchers have translated upamana- as “alter ego” or “double”, therefore considered cistā as “alter ego” of daēnā. In this research, these two words will be examined from the etymological point of view. Then, through Avestan texts, each of them will be discussed in order to understand their similarities and resemblances. According to the available evidence, it does not seem that cistā is daēnā-'s “alter ego”. One should assume that the two deities overlap in functions. Keywords: daēnā-, cistā-, Dēn yašt, Gāhān, New Avesta. Introduction daēnā- is a theological and philosophical term with a variety of meanings: “perception, vision, view, insight, self, conscience and even religion.” daēnā- is the existence of one's moral qualities. daēnā- with the function and capacity to distinguish between good and bad actions, it is the embodiment of moral conscience, which was given to humans as an offering by Ahura Mazda. In the Old Avesta, this capacity is more perceived in a perceptual way, rather than having a real divine form. In the New Avesta, this capacity for moral purification appears in the form of a young and beautiful maiden before the soul of a pious person after his death. One of her characteristics in Avesta is her connection with the “path”, which is in line with her function in guiding the soul “uruuan-” to the transcendental world. This function makes her similar to the goddess cistā-, who is clearly the goddess of “path and travel” according toher Yašt, dēn yašt. This issue leads to the formation of a hypothesis that can we find other similarities and resemblance between daēnā- and cistā- in Avestan texts? Is it possible to go as far as to consider cistā- as the “other self” or an “alter ego” of daēnā-? This question will be answered in this article. Materials and Methods The method used in this article is descriptive-analytical, based on collecting information from library sources. Discussion & Result In Old Avesta, daēnā- appears three times with “path”. Since one of the duties of daēnā- in New Avesta is to show the way and guide the soul “uruuan” to the transcendental world, it seems that the combination of “path” and daēnā- in Old Avesta also refers to this function. In Gāhān cistā- is used only in the compound noun pouru.cistā-. The last Gāhān, seems to be the wedding hymn of pouru.cistā-, Zoroaster's youngest daughter. Some scholars think that pouru.cistā- is the same as daēnā- in this Yasn. In New Avesta, Yašt 16th, emphasizes the role of the goddess cistā- in guidance and that is why she is called the goddess of “path and journey”. In the final part of the first stanza of Dēn Yašt, daēnā- māzdaiiasni- is described as equal and similar to cistā-. Based on this, many Avestan scholars have considered these two to be the same goddesses. In addition, Yašt 10.126 makes cistā- the upamana- of the daēnā, that is to say something like her “alter ego”. Some researchers have translated upamana- as “alter ego” or “double”, therefore considered cistā as “alter ego” of daēnā. In New Avesta, both daēnā- and cistā- are associated with dawn light, therefore are closely related to the Vedic dawn goddess uṣắs-. Both are related to the verb of seeing, daēnā- sees, is seen and causes to be seen, like cistā-, whose name means “to be noticed and seen”. Due to these similarities, many scholars consider cistā- and daēnā- to be the same goddess. Conclusion According to the Avestan texts, there are similarities between daēnā- and cistā-, but it is not possible to go as far as to consider cistā- as the "other self" or as the “alter ego” of daēnā-, one should assume that the two deities overlap in functions. Unlike cistā-, daēnā- in both Gāhān and New Avesta is associated with death and the guidance of the soul in the world after death. Since daēnā- is formed based on one's choices in life, so if he chooses evil, his daēnā- will also “lose the truth and the right path.” (Y.51/13) or in Hadoxt Nask 3 daēnā- the evil person becomes an ugly old woman who leads him to the “dangerous world”. But nowhere in the Avesta is cistā- a guide towards evils and ugliness. All that has been said emphasizes the close connection of daēnā- with cistā-. But the proofs and clues are not enough to think of them as “alter ego or other selves”. Interference and intermingling of functions and characteristics in some Avestan texts has caused them to be identified as the same.

Abstract Abstract This research investigates the dynamic relationship between kingship and the solar deity in Iranian literature, tracing its development from Avestan texts through Middle Persian writings to early modern Persian prose and poetry. It explores how the sun’s attributes —its radiant light, life-giving energy, justice, and cosmic harmony—are woven into depictions of kings, affirming their divine authority. Adopting a text-focused approach, the research examines key sources such as the Yashts, Bundahišn, Wizīdagīhā ī Zādspram, and Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, alongside Persian poetic texts. The findings highlight a recurring theme: the sun evolves from a daily source of light to a supreme deity, paralleled by kings portrayed as luminous, just, and life-sustaining figures. Enriched by comparisons with Near Eastern and Indian traditions, this connection reveals a purposeful continuity of mythological motifs in Iranian culture, vividly expressed through tangible solar imagery in literature. Keywords Kingship, Sun, Iranian Mythology, Early Modern Persian literature Introduction Across ancient Near and Middle Eastern cultures, a deep bond between earthly power and divine essence shaped the way rulers were perceived, often likening them to gods to cement their legitimacy. The idea of a supreme being—ruling the cosmos, upholding truth and order, and delivering justice—found its earthly echo in the institution of kingship. Human language, shaped by cultural narratives, often equated “God,” the ultimate authority, with the king, the pinnacle of earthly power. For example, Mesopotamian texts praise Marduk as the “Great Lord” and “King of the World” (Smith, 1982: 18-35), while Elamites honored Inshushinak as the “Lord of Susa.” Among these divine figures, solar deities stood out, revered for their life-giving light and warmth. This study investigates this dynamic in Iranian literature, from the Avesta to early modern Persian works, focusing on the symbolic ties between the sun and kingship and how these are expressed in literary traditions. Materials & Methods The research employs a text-oriented methodology, engaging directly with primary sources spanning three key phases of Iranian literature. For the ancient period, Avestan texts, particularly the Yashts, are analyzed; for Middle Persian, works such as Bundahišn and Wizīdagīhā ī Zādspram are explored; and for early modern Persian, texts such as Shahnameh and corpus data of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature has been utilized. The study begins with a comparative look at solar deities and kingship in Near Eastern and Indian cultures before focusing on Iranian texts to identify recurring themes. Emphasis is placed on concrete, observable connections—such as light and order—rather than abstract interpretations, ensuring a clear and evidence-based analysis of literary and cultural continuity. Discussion The sun’s rise to divine prominence unfolds in four stages: first, as a daily harbinger of light and life; second, as the source of creation; third, as a guardian against darkness; and fourth, as an all-seeing dispenser of justice. This trajectory, shared across ancient cultures, elevates the sun to a position of divine supremacy, a pattern vividly reflected in Iranian texts. In the Avesta, the sun (huuare-xšaēta-) is celebrated as “immortal” and “radiant,” purifying the world (Yasht 6). In Bundahišn, Gayōmart shines “bright as the sun,” his essence returning to it after death. In Shahnameh, Jamšid's solar brilliance and, Gayōmart’s luminescence tie kingship to divinity. Early modern Persian literature carries this forward with metaphors such as the “radiant sun of justice.” Comparisons with Mesopotamian kings, Egyptian pharaohs (sons of Ra), and Indian solar dynasties (Suryavamsha) reveal shared motifs, suggesting a broader Near Eastern tradition uniquely adapted in Iranian literature. Conclusion This study affirms a deep and evolving relationship between the sun and kingship in Iranian literature, anchored in the sun’s tangible attributes—light, life, and order—and expressed through vivid metaphors and imagery. From Avestan hymns to Middle Persian cosmology and early modern Persian literature, kings emerge as solar embodiments, bridging the divine and earthly realms. This continuity, enriched by parallels with Near Eastern traditions, points to a deliberate preservation of mythological themes that legitimize authority while reflecting Iranian cultural identity. The king, as a “sun” of justice and generosity, embodies a literary tradition that intertwines cosmic symbolism with earthly power, enduring across centuries.