Language Studies

"The Institution of Kingship and Its Correlation with the Sun God in Iranian Literature (from the Avesta to Early New Persian Poetry and Prose Texts)"

Document Type : Research original ,Regular Article

Authors

Yasna Aflaki 1
Jaleh Amouzegar Yeganeh 2
Ameneh Zaheri Abdwand 3

1 *PhD student.Department of Ancient Iranian Culture and Languages, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, (The First Author)

2 The Professor, Department of Ancient Iranian Culture and Languages, Tehran University,

3 The Assistant Professor, Department of Ancient Iranian Culture and Languages, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University

https://doi.org/10.30465/ls.2025.51220.2204
Abstract

Abstract
This research investigates the dynamic relationship between kingship and the solar deity in Iranian literature, tracing its development from Avestan texts through Middle Persian writings to early modern Persian prose and poetry. It explores how the sun’s attributes —its radiant light, life-giving energy, justice, and cosmic harmony—are woven into depictions of kings, affirming their divine authority. Adopting a text-focused approach, the research examines key sources such as the Yashts, Bundahišn, Wizīdagīhā ī Zādspram, and Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, alongside Persian poetic texts. The findings highlight a recurring theme: the sun evolves from a daily source of light to a supreme deity, paralleled by kings portrayed as luminous, just, and life-sustaining figures. Enriched by comparisons with Near Eastern and Indian traditions, this connection reveals a purposeful continuity of mythological motifs in Iranian culture, vividly expressed through tangible solar imagery in literature.
Keywords
Kingship, Sun, Iranian Mythology, Early Modern Persian literature
Introduction
Across ancient Near and Middle Eastern cultures, a deep bond between earthly power and divine essence shaped the way rulers were perceived, often likening them to gods to cement their legitimacy. The idea of a supreme being—ruling the cosmos, upholding truth and order, and delivering justice—found its earthly echo in the institution of kingship. Human language, shaped by cultural narratives, often equated “God,” the ultimate authority, with the king, the pinnacle of earthly power. For example, Mesopotamian texts praise Marduk as the “Great Lord” and “King of the World” (Smith, 1982: 18-35), while Elamites honored Inshushinak as the “Lord of Susa.” Among these divine figures, solar deities stood out, revered for their life-giving light and warmth. This study investigates this dynamic in Iranian literature, from the Avesta to early modern Persian works, focusing on the symbolic ties between the sun and kingship and how these are expressed in literary traditions.

Materials & Methods
The research employs a text-oriented methodology, engaging directly with primary sources spanning three key phases of Iranian literature. For the ancient period, Avestan texts, particularly the Yashts, are analyzed; for Middle Persian, works such as Bundahišn and Wizīdagīhā ī Zādspram are explored; and for early modern Persian, texts such as Shahnameh and corpus data of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature has been utilized. The study begins with a comparative look at solar deities and kingship in Near Eastern and Indian cultures before focusing on Iranian texts to identify recurring themes. Emphasis is placed on concrete, observable connections—such as light and order—rather than abstract interpretations, ensuring a clear and evidence-based analysis of literary and cultural continuity.

Discussion
The sun’s rise to divine prominence unfolds in four stages: first, as a daily harbinger of light and life; second, as the source of creation; third, as a guardian against darkness; and fourth, as an all-seeing dispenser of justice. This trajectory, shared across ancient cultures, elevates the sun to a position of divine supremacy, a pattern vividly reflected in Iranian texts. In the Avesta, the sun (huuare-xšaēta-) is celebrated as “immortal” and “radiant,” purifying the world (Yasht 6). In Bundahišn, Gayōmart shines “bright as the sun,” his essence returning to it after death. In Shahnameh, Jamšid's solar brilliance and, Gayōmart’s luminescence tie kingship to divinity. Early modern Persian literature carries this forward with metaphors such as the “radiant sun of justice.” Comparisons with Mesopotamian kings, Egyptian pharaohs (sons of Ra), and Indian solar dynasties (Suryavamsha) reveal shared motifs, suggesting a broader Near Eastern tradition uniquely adapted in Iranian literature.

Conclusion
This study affirms a deep and evolving relationship between the sun and kingship in Iranian literature, anchored in the sun’s tangible attributes—light, life, and order—and expressed through vivid metaphors and imagery. From Avestan hymns to Middle Persian cosmology and early modern Persian literature, kings emerge as solar embodiments, bridging the divine and earthly realms. This continuity, enriched by parallels with Near Eastern traditions, points to a deliberate preservation of mythological themes that legitimize authority while reflecting Iranian cultural identity. The king, as a “sun” of justice and generosity, embodies a literary tradition that intertwines cosmic symbolism with earthly power, enduring across centuries.

Keywords

kingship
Sun deity
Iranian myths
Subjects
Amuzegar, Zhaleh (2015). “Gayomarth.” Comprehensive History of Iran (Tārīkh-e Jāme‘-e Īrān), Volume 2, Mythological History of Iran. Tehran: Moin Publications. [In Persian]
Anklesaria, B. T. (1956). Zand-Akasih (Iranian or Greater Bundahisn). Bombay.
Anklesaria, B. T. (1964). Vichitakiha-i Zatsparam, with text and introduction. Bombay.
Bahar, Mehrdad (2006). Bundahishn. Tehran: Toos Publications. [In Persian]
Cassirer, Ernst (2024). Sprache und Mythos. Translated by Mohsen Salasi. Tehran: Morvarid Publications. [In Persian]
Christensen, Arthur (2014). Les Types du premier homme et du premier roi dans les légendes de l’Iran. Translated by Zhaleh Amuzegar and Ahmad Tafazzoli. Tehran: Cheshmeh Publications. [In Persian]
Condino, Meggin (2009). U.X.L Encyclopedia of World Mythology. Detroit: Gale.
Eliade, Mircea (2014). Traité d'histoire des religions. Translated by Mani Salehi Allameh. Volume 1. Tehran: Niloufar Publications. [In Persian]
Eliade, Mircea (2014). Mythes, rêves et mystères. Translated by Mani Salehi Allameh. Tehran: Parseh Book Translation and Publishing. [In Persian]
Esfahani, Hamzeh (1988). History of Prophets and Kings (Tārīkh-e Payāmbarān va Shāhān). Translated by Jafar Shoar. Tehran: Amirkabir Publications. [In Persian]
Evans, Veronica (1996). Egyptian Mythology. Translated by Bajelan Farrokhi. Tehran: Asatir Publications. [In Persian]
Frye, Northrop (1993). The Educated Imagination. Translated by Saeed Arbab Shirani. Tehran: University Press Center. [In Persian]
Iles Johnston, Sarah (2019). Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Translated by Javad Firouzi. Tehran: Qoqnoos Publications. [In Persian]
Khaleghi Motlagh, Jalal (2007). Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh (Shāhnāmeh-ye Ferdowsī), Volume 1. Tehran: Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopaedia. [In Persian]
Khaleghi Motlagh, Jalal (2007). Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh (Shāhnāmeh-ye Ferdowsī), Volume 2. Tehran: Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopaedia. [In Persian]
 Madan, D. M. (Ed.). (1911). The Dinkard: The original Pahlavi text (Vol. 2). Bombay: The Fort Printing Press.
Mostowfi, Hamdollah (2002). Tārīkh-e Gozīdeh. Tehran: Amirkabir Publications. [In Persian]
Müller, Friedrich Max. (1997).  The Early Sociology of Religion, Volume II, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, Lecture VI. Routledge/Thoemmes Press.
Pakzad, Fazlollah (2005). Bundahishn. Tehran: Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopaedia.
Pourdavoud, Ebrahim (2001). Khordeh Avestā. Tehran: Asatir Publications. [In Persian]
Pourdavoud, Ebrahim (2001). Yasna (Yasnā). Tehran: Asatir Publications. [In Persian]
Pourdavoud, Ebrahim (2015a). Yashts (Yasht-hā), Volume 1. Tehran: Asatir Publications. [In Persian]
Pourdavoud, Ebrahim (2015b). Yasht (Yasht-hā), Volume 2. Tehran: Asatir Publications. [In Persian]
Pritchard, James B. (1969). “Hittite Historical Texts, translated by Albrecht Goetze”: Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testaments. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Rashedmohassel, Mohammad Taghi (2010). Dinkard VII (Dīnkard-i Haftum). Tehran: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies. [In Persian]
Rosenberg, Donna (2022). World Mythology: An Anthology of Great Myths and Epics, Volume 1. Translated by Abdulhossein Sharifian. Tehran: Asatir Publications. [In Persian]
Sanjana, D. D. P. (1896). The Karname I Artakhshir I Papakan: being the oldest surviving records of the Zoroastrian emperor Ardashir Babakan. Bombay: Education Society’s Steam Press.
Smith, Gary V. (1982). “The Concept of God/The Gods as King in the Ancient Near East and the Bible”: Trinity Journal, Vol TRINJ, 03:1,18-38.
Wilkins, W. J. (1913). Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic. California: Thacker, Spink.
Yamamoto, Hajime (2015). “Communication between the Gods and the Hittite King”. The 8th CISMOR Conference on Jewish Studies.
Language Studies
Volume 17, Issue 2
February 2027
Pages 29-60

  • Receive Date 19 February 2025
  • Revise Date 15 April 2025
  • Accept Date 24 August 2025

Home

Guide for Authors

Submit Manuscript

Reviewers

Contact Us