Language Studies

Abstract This article examines the effect of control degree of main clause on finiteness and tense in Persian complement clauses. Landau considers the obligatoty control of main clause verb on the predicate of finite and nonfinite complement clause. The semantic interpretation of predicate of main clause determines the mood and finiteness of the dependent clause using finiteness and tense. Increasing the control intensity of main clause on the occurrence of complementary clause increases the degree of non‌finiteness of complementary clause. The purpose of this article is to examine the effect of finiteness and tense on the occurrence of dependent clause regarding to the degree of control of main clause based on Landau’s Minimalism and Givon’s Functionalism. The data of research has been collected in a library manner and analyzed by a descriptive-analytical method. Results are indicative of gradability of tense and finiteness in complement clauses. By decreasing the control intensity of main clause verb, the occurrence time of complementary clause has less reference to main clause. The mood and finiteness of complement clauses are changed from nonfinite subjunctive mood to finite indicative mood; so finiteness can be defined as a continuum from nonfiniteness to weak, moderate and complete finiteness.

Abstract Abstract
Nesāb is a term used to describe the versified glossaries, which were composed mostly during the Qajar era, for the sake of pedagogic purposes. Applying the principles of investigating linguistic nesāb, the present article introduces and describes the semantic features in the newly found nesāb.  The importance of this nesāb lies in the fact that, unlike other major Caspian languages (namely, Māzandarāni and Semnāni) for which extensive nesābs are available, prior to the discovery of the text discussed in this article, the existence of the lexicon for Gilaki in verse had not been convinced. The present qualitative research is included in the category of fundamental studies. The research framework is dialectology, and the geographical scope of the study is limited to Gilān province. Data analysis has been carried out descriptively and interpretively. The meanings of the vocabulary are presented based both on linguistic intuition and by reference to Gialki dictionaries. This short nesāb is composed of 25 verses, including words from various parts of speech and nouns from different semantic domains. The nesāb consists of two sections- an 18-verse-part and a 7-verse-part composed respectively in the Motaqāreb and Mojttas prosody in the Pahlavi I era.
 
Keywords: Gilaki, Nesāb, dialect dictionary, versified glossary, manuscript.
 
IntroductionNesābs are versified dictionaries composed for the purpose of education, and may be considered to be placed among the first oral dictionaries. These versified texts were composed to facilitate the process of memorizing words, and were used to sugarcoat the issues which were hard to learn. In addition to their linguistic value, these texts also bear cultural significance, as they contain traces of words which seem to be removed from the collective memory of the speakers of the language in the process of language extinction, or language transformation. From this perspective, composing Nesābs may be considered as a part of strategies for knowledge transfer, the spread of local languages, and the preservation of oral traditions. In poetic literature, a Nesāb is the description of a word or concept in another expression, and is of three types: inflectional Nesābs, expressive Nesābs, and linguistic Nesābs, the latter of which deals with the translation and provision of lexical equivalents among languages. Dialectal Nesābs are considered as historical documents which not only reflect the linguistic characteristics of a particular period, but also provide information about the environment, attitudes, and lifestyles of the speakers of that dialect. These Nisābs are particularly important for chronological studies and linguistic documentation, especially in the case of endangered languages ​of which few written sources are available. Material and MethodsThe present study, by applying the principles of the study of dialectal Nisābs and in line with the main goal of the research, documenting the Gilaki language, aims to achieve two goals: first, introducing the first available Gilaki Nesāb; and secondly, describing the linguistic information of the work in question. Based on the aforementioned goals, the present qualitative research may be placed among the fundamental studies. In order to do so, a general information of Nesāb s and a brief historical sketch of composing Nesābs is provided, and the major dialectal Nesāb s have also been introduced.The research framework is dialectology, and the scope of the research is limited to Gilan province. The data analysis was conducted descriptively and interpretively, and to achieve this, in addition to the linguistic intuition of one of the authors as an informed native speaker, references were made to the available references, such as A Dictionary of Gilaki (Stoudeh), A Glossary of Gilaki Dialect, including Gilaki Idioms and Proverbs (Mar‘ashi), A Dictionary of Gil and Daylam (Payandeh), and Gila-Gab (Nozad). Discussion and ResultsIn the manuscript section of the Central Library of the University of Tehran, among the manuscripts donated by the late ‘Ali Asghar Hekmat to the Faculty of Literature library, there is a manuscript numbered 326, which contains poems and writings in Gilaki. This text does not bear a specific date or author's signature, but considering the number 311 (1311/ 1932) mentioned at the beginning of another poem on page 50 of the text in this collection, it can be assumed that the text belongs to the Pahlavi I era. On pages 39 to 41 of this manuscript, a text called "Gilaki Nisāb" is written, which is an instructional poem in 25 verses, presented in two parts. The first part of this Nisāb provides 18 verses in the Bahr-e Mutaqāreb (fa‘ulon fa‘ulon fa‘ulon fa‘ul) and presents the meaning of 53 words. The second part consists of 7 verses in Bahr-e Mojattas (mafā‘elon fa‘alāton mafā‘elon fa‘alon) and presents the meaning of 25 words. The text starts with this sentence that since Gilan remained safe during the different wars and battles, and its inhabitants were not forced to migrate to the other parts of the country, it may be claimed that Gilaki has preserved many of its old and original words (referred to as alfāz-e fors-e qadim ‘words of the older Persian’). It is noteworthy that for a long time, local dialects were known as the older forms of Persian, rather than independent dialects per se. The presence of words such as "Eiffel Tower" and "Dun-Echel" (low level) in this verse indicates the poet's familiarity with the French language and culture, and strengthens the possibility that he belonged to the literate and upper class of society of his time.  ConclusionThe study of the present Gilaki Nesāb reveals that the words used in it belong to different categories of speech, namely infinitives, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and nouns, and the majority of the words in this vocabulary are nouns. This category includes words from the human artifacts, animals, names of nature, physical activities, body parts, food, kinship relations, physical states, clothing words and units of measurement. The words in this vocabulary, despite being few in number, have metatextual connotations which provide the audience with valuable ecological and identity information. A noteworthy point about human artifacts is that they can be placed in two categories: straw and wood. The raw materials of human structures in the present Nesāb, terminate with an approach to the ecosystem; that the place of use of the dialect studied in the present text is undoubtedly a fertile and rainy region, and the language reflects its ecosystem and the man-made structures that have created it. The words related to “rice” indicate the cultivation of this agricultural product in the region and its importance in daily life. Also, the indication of a large number of animals in the text indicates the biodiversity of this region, especially in terms of birds and poultry on the one hand, and their importance in the lives of the Gilaki speakers on the other. Referring to cases like this is an arena for the cultural display of the table of its people. Another issue of note is the information provided by this text about the Gilaki foods. A brief look at the cuisine of the people of Gilan province reveals a diverse range of foods which are primarily prepared with rice or various types of chicken and poultry. The present study also shows that how recording and analyzing the local poetic texts contributes to the preservation of endangered languages, as well as paving the way for the recognition of hidden layers of meaning in native culture, and the strengthening of linguistic resilience against social changes.
 

Abstract Abstract Voice in academic writing refers to the author's sense of presence in a text which can be expressed through the use of lexical discourse markers. This study investigated meta-discourse markers of voice in humanities research articles based on Hyland’s classification. The research questions were: a) what lexical tools are used to express author's voice and how frequent are they? b) Are there significant differences between the use of hedges, boosters, attitude markers, self-mentions, pronouns, and directives?  Authors' uses of discourse markers of voice were coded and quantified. These expressions were compared across types of meta-discourse categories. The data included fifty randomly-selected research articles published in indexed Iranian journals in the last decade. The research method was a mix of qualitative (text analysis) and quantitative procedures (frequency counting and statistics). The results showed that 1) in Persian articles written in the humanities, hedges for the cautious expression of statements, boosters for definite expression of ideas, and attitude markers for the expression of author's feelings about his propositions were the most frequently used type of discourse markers, 2) the use of first person pronouns to express the author's voice clearly, pronouns referring to the reader of the article and directives were very infrequently observed, and 3) inferential tests showed that frequencies were significantly (p≤0.5) different across type of stance and engagement markers. Keywords: Academic Writing, Research articles, Voice, Hyland, Stance markers   Introduction According to the interactive meta-discourse model in the text, discourse markers are used to show the author's perspective on the propositional content of the text and on the reader (Hyland, 2005, p. 25). Interactive meta-discourse is related to the way the author of the text communicates linguistically with his/her writing and its readers. This includes various categories of lexical markers, examples of which are hedges, boosters or certainty markers, self-expression, and other markers. Based on Hyland (2005) and Taremi et al. (2018), different types of interactive discourse markers can be briefly defined as follows. Hedges express the author's doubt about the correctness of the stated proposition. Boosters depict the author's certainty about the correctness of the text. Attitude markers show the author's perspective on the text, the importance of the text, and his/her surprise. Self-expressions or self-references are phrases in a text through which the author announces his or her presence in the text. Subjunctives, imperatives and interrogatives are also used for communication between the author and the audience. How authors express their active presence beyond the text and expresses their voice in the text has not been fully investigated, and research data on author’s voice is scant for Persian-speaking scholars. The author's voice and the way he deals with the ideas he writes can be heard through the words and sentences he writes. The question is, what linguistic markers does the Persian-speaking author of a scientific article use to determine his approach to the text? How does he interacts with his readers? How does he show the degree of his doubt and certainty? In other words, is there a way to determine the strength of the researcher's voice in his writing, considering linguistic models in the field? The purpose of this study was to explore some components of author's voice in humanities research articles published in Persian. The aim was to see whether the author's voice in a scientific article can be heard through the words and sentences he writes. The purpose was also to see explore the frequency of words and phrases used to express the author's voice. Specifically, the aim was to quantitatively and qualitatively examine the use of lexical expressions/markers related to meta-discourse based on the Hyland (2005) interaction model. The following questions were examined: 1) What lexical tools are used to express the author's voice? 2) Does the frequency of use of various components of the author's voice (such as imperative phrases, precautionary phrases, first-person pronouns, etc.) differ in the articles?   Materials and methods The research method used in this study include both quantitative methods based on detailed study and examination of lexical frequency and qualitative methods based on coding and text analysis. In the qualitative part, the selected corpus was examined in terms of the use of author's voice components using the linguistic model presented by Hyland (2005). The texts were coded by two experts to determine the use of author's voice components in these scientific articles.  In the quantitative phase, frequency and percentage were calculated for each of the voice marker types. First, fifty research articles in the humanities were randomly selected from among the articles published in journals indexed by the Iranian Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology. The unit of analysis was each sentence in the abstract, introduction, discussion, and conclusion of the articles.  In total, the coded texts included 73,676 words, and the longest section was the discussion and conclusion, and the shortest was the abstract. The analysis, coding, determination, and counting of the components of the author's voice were carried out based on the definitions specified in the theoretical and research background and based on the coding protocol agreed upon by two coders with an agreement coefficient of 97 percent.     Results and Discussion The first aim of the study was to see what lexical tools are used to express the author's voice in scientific articles by Iranian scholars in the humanities. The analysis of the articles based on Hyland’s (2005) model showed that scholars used all categories of linguistic markers extracted from the model to express their presence in the text and to express voice. These markers included all categories of discourse markers reported in previous studies of research articles. These markers were scattered in the abstract, introduction and conclusion of the articles. The second aim was to explore the frequency of authorial voice markers. The results of Kolmogorov-Smirnov test showed significant differences among categories. Boosters or certainty indicators came with the highest frequency followed by hedges in the second row. References to the author himself, which indicate ownership of the idea, and imperative sentences had the lowest frequency.   Conclusion The study showed infrequent and weak use of many discourse marker types that can strongly show authors voice. Inappropriate use of meta-discursive markers in research articles published by Iranian scholars can be partly attributed to writing culture in their academic community, insufficient training and workshops on academic writing, and lack of interaction between journal staff and authors. The explored articles can be marked weakly interactive where the author is afraid of taking responsibility for the claims and prefers to use markers less than expected, reflecting a weak author's voice.

Abstract Abstract
The environment plays a crucial and determining role in human life, and the prevailing discourses—particularly those addressing environmental issues and challenges—significantly shape the attitudes and behaviors of societies and governments toward such problems. The present study aims to analyze the environmental discourse of the Iran newspaper concerning the issue of the Miankaleh petrochemical project. The data consist of twelve articles published in 2022 (1401 in the Iranian calendar) that discussed the environmental aspects of constructing this petrochemical complex. This research adopts a descriptive-analytical method, and the data were examined within the framework of Stibbe’s (2015, 2021) ecolinguistic approach. The findings indicate that various discursive components can be identified in both pro- and anti-project discourses; however, the discourse of the opponents appears to be stronger and more elaborate, incorporating all nine components of Stibbe’s discourse analysis model. According to the results, the central theme emphasized by the opponents—through elements such as framing, metaphor, narrative, evaluation, and salience—is the destructive environmental consequences of the Miankaleh petrochemical project and its adverse effects on the livelihood, employment, and health of the local residents. In contrast, the proponents of the project mainly highlight its potential for job creation.
 
 
Introduction
A significant and indisputable part of human life arises from his connection and interaction with nature and the surrounding environment. The importance of attending to the environment has increased alongside urban development and the advancement of human civilization, and today governments and nations attach special significance to the environment; protecting the environment is a concern for many nations and governments. Scientific, industrial, and technological advances in contemporary societies have brought unintended and undesirable consequences for the environment, with air pollution, water pollution, and drought being examples of these environmental problems. Iran has also faced numerous environmental problems and challenges in recent decades, and this issue has been reflected not only in public discourse but also in the press, becoming a venue for discussion and exchange of views. These discourses are important because how the people—and even officials—respond to the environment and environmental problems largely depends on which discourses come to dominate the minds of society and decision-makers.
One environmental issue that has received widespread attention in Iran media discourse in recent years and has generated a wave of varied opinions and positions is the construction of the Miankaleh petrochemical plant in Behshahr county in Mazandaran province. Given the importance of this subject and the prominence and controversy of the discourse(s) formed around whether to build this petrochemical company, our aim in the present research is to examine the texts published about the Miankaleh petrochemical plant in the Iran newspaper, as one of the country’s official and well-known newspapers that largely reflects the government’s positions and views. The discourse analysis of the Iran newspaper regarding the Miankaleh petrochemical plant is carried out within the framework of ecolinguistics and specifically following the approach of Stibbe (2015, 2021). Stibbe defines ecolinguistics as “critiquing forms of language that contribute to ecological destruction, and aiding in the search for new forms of language that inspire people to protect the natural world” (Stibbe, 2015: 1).
Materials & methods
The research data consist of 12 articles published in the Iran newspaper about the Miankaleh petrochemical issue during the year 1401. After reviewing all twelve articles, the discursive components were extracted and examined according to Stibbe’s approach (2015, 2021). Stibbe built his discourse analysis model based on nine components, each of which he calls a “story.” By “story,” Stibbe means a cognitive structure in the human mind (a mental model) that determines how one perceives the world around them. These stories are: ideology, framing, metaphor, evaluation, identity, conviction, erasure, salience, and narrative.
Discussion & Result
In the reviewed articles, both the discourses of opponents and supporters of the Miankaleh petrochemical project can be found. In the opponents' discourse, the project is framed and conceptualized as a “cause of social conflict in the region” and a “threat to the lives of the area's farmers and herders.” Opponents have generally tried to highlight the environmental and social consequences of the Miankaleh petrochemical for the region and province, thereby portraying the establishment of this plant as wrong, illegal, environmentally destructive, and against the interests of local residents. Supporters of the project, on the other hand, have placed most of their emphasis on job creation and, by claiming that building the Miankaleh petrochemical plant will create jobs and welfare for local people, have sought to justify the project economically. In the proponents' discourse, the environmental and social consequences and impacts of the project have been excluded from consideration and, in fact, have been subjected to a process of erasure. Opponents of the Miankaleh petrochemical project have attempted, by citing expert analyses, legal principles, past experiences, and even scientific sources, to evaluate the project as bad, undesirable, destructive, unscientific, and even illegal. One of the discursive methods they have used is appealing to the law to legitimize their opposition to the project's implementation.
Conclusion
The results of the study showed that in the discourse of opponents of the Miankaleh petrochemical— which is stronger, more voluminous, and discursively richer—all of the mentioned components (stories) are present, whereas in the discourse of the project’s supporters only some of these components can be found. The only ideology identified in this study is the ideology of environmental protection, which is embedded in the opponents’ discourse and largely underpins the other components as well. The opponents framed this project as a source of social conflict in the region and a threat to the lives of local farmers and herders, and by using metaphors such as “industrial monster” and “scorched land” they sought to highlight the destructive effects of constructing this petrochemical project on the environment and people’s lives. In contrast, supporters of the project, using the metaphors “green industry” and “environmental game,” tried both to portray the Miankaleh petrochemical as compliant with environmental standards and to depict the opponents’ arguments as unrealistic and merely a game.

Abstract  
Abstract
This study explores the cultural conceptualization and representation of wedding and mourning ceremonies in Iranian society through the lens of Transpositional Grammar and multimodal discourse analysis. Using the Iranian drama film A Cube of Sugar as the primary data source, the research investigates how cultural meanings are conveyed across various semiotic modes—speech, body, image, object, text, sound, and space. The analysis reveals that speech is the dominant mode for transmitting cultural representations, followed by body language, visual imagery, and material objects. The study also examines cultural metaphors by identifying source and target domains in both concrete and abstract forms, emphasizing the role of audience familiarity with cultural schemas in interpreting these representations.
Introduction
Cultural conceptualizations are deeply embedded in the linguistic and semiotic practices of human societies. In Iranian culture, ceremonies such as weddings and funerals serve as rich sites for the expression of cultural values, beliefs, and norms. This paper aims to analyze how these ceremonies are represented in visual and verbal media, focusing on the film A Cube of Sugar, which juxtaposes both events within a single narrative. The theoretical framework combines cultural linguistics—particularly schemas, categories, and metaphors—with Transpositional Grammar to examine how meaning is transferred across modes and functions.
Materials & Methods
The primary material for analysis is the Iranian film A Cube of Sugar, selected for its simultaneous portrayal of wedding and mourning rituals. The methodology integrates multimodal discourse analysis with Transpositional Grammar, which categorizes meaning-making into five semantic functions: reference, agency, structure, context, and interest. Each scene is dissected to identify the dominant modes of representation and the transposition of meaning across these modes. The study also draws on previous research in cultural linguistics and multimodal theory to contextualize its findings.
Discussion & Results
Findings indicate that cultural meanings are most frequently conveyed through speech, followed by body movements, visual imagery, and objects. Text and sound play a lesser role in this specific film. The analysis shows that cultural metaphors often rely on concrete source domains to express abstract cultural concepts. For instance, spatial arrangements and bodily gestures in mourning scenes evoke collective grief, while wedding scenes use speech and music to symbolize joy and continuity. The effectiveness of these representations depends on the audience’s familiarity with Iranian cultural schemas, which mediate interpretation and emotional resonance.
Conclusion
This research demonstrates that Transpositional Grammar provides a robust framework for analyzing cultural representation in multimodal texts. In A Cube of Sugar, the interplay of speech, body, image, and object forms a layered narrative that reflects Iranian cultural conceptualizations of celebration and loss. The study underscores the importance of cultural schemas in decoding multimodal messages and suggests that future research should further explore the role of audience knowledge in shaping meaning across different cultural contexts.

Abstract  Metaphor, which in the classical sense was a poetic tool for decorating the word, was introduced as the basis of thinking with the advent of cognitive linguistics.  In this view, abstract things are understood in the form of tangible things, which are called conceptual metaphors.  In this descriptive and analytic-descriptive study, the conceptual metaphor of infantile poetry was investigated in this study.  The results show that 51 cases of conceptual metaphor were used in the studied works, 38 of which were conceptualized with the help of "sweet" and 13 with "bitter" taste.  Areas of origin These metaphors are "sweet and bitter" and areas of destination are "the good or the bad feeling of different things".  Because 1. most metaphors are conceptualized by the children's favorite taste; 2. they are all ontological in accordance with children's view of the world; 3. with the most tangible evidence;  The poets have been successful in adapting their poetic atmosphere to the children's morals and have composed poetry in accordance with their childlike tastes.
 Keyword: Conceptual metaphor, Childish poems, Tastes, Sweet, Bitter.
Introduction
One of the areas whose trajectory of study was fundamentally transformed with the emergence of cognitive linguistics is metaphor. For many years, metaphor had been regarded as a poetic device serving the non-ordinary use of language; however, with the expansion of cognitive sciences, it came to be recognized as a tool for thinking and for understanding abstract and immaterial concepts. In this view, the mind comprehends abstract notions by reconstructing them in terms of concrete, material experiences. The present study seeks to examine the role of gustatory perceptions in the formation of conceptual metaphors in children’s literature. Since a child acquires much of their early information and experiences through the sense of taste, the percepts associated with this sense are inherently more tangible for them than those of other senses. With this in mind, the study aims to investigate how poets of children’s literature conceptualize abstract notions for their young audiences and to determine the extent to which they have succeeded in facilitating children’s comprehension of abstract ideas in accordance with their experiential world.
Method
This research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology. The corpus consists of thirty poetry books selected from among children’s poetic works. The poets represented include Ebrahimi, Khodadoust, Rahmandoust, Shabannejad, Shabani, Keshavarz, Kianoush, Lotfollah, Mazinani, Mohaqqeq, and Baktash, from whose works all conceptual metaphors related to the gustatory domain were extracted. The study addresses the following questions: (1) What are the principal source domains belonging to the gustatory field in children’s poetry? (2) How does the use of these source domains affect the conveyance of abstract concepts?

* The Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Mohaghegh Ardabili University. (The First Author).  asgarsalahi98@gmail.com

** Ph.D. in Persian Language and Literature, Mohaghegh Ardabili University. nedanabizade65@gmail.com
Receipt date: 17  ⁄  11  ⁄  2020
Accepted date: 26  ⁄  2  ⁄  2021
Discussion
This study centers on conceptual metaphors in children’s poetry, with particular emphasis on those grounded in the sense of taste. In Lakoff and Johnson’s view, conceptual metaphor provides a means of comprehending abstract concepts through concrete, embodied experience. Each conceptual metaphor comprises a source domain—material and perceptible—and a target domain—typically abstract and mental. The connection between the two is established through mapping. Based on established classifications, conceptual metaphors fall into three types: structural, orientational, and ontological. Structural metaphors supply a rich knowledge structure in the source for understanding the target; orientational metaphors conceptualize meaning through spatial orientations; and ontological metaphors reframe abstract concepts as concrete, existent entities.
Given the nature of children’s cognitive development, the sense of taste occupies a distinctive position in their early understanding, as it is active from the prenatal phase and remains significantly stronger in early childhood than in adulthood. Consequently, children experience gustatory stimuli in a direct and immediate manner. This makes flavors—particularly sweetness and bitterness—highly suitable source domains for metaphorical expression in children’s literature, since they play a major role in representing pleasant and unpleasant experiences from a child’s perspective.
The analysis of thirty collections of children’s poetry revealed approximately sixty-nine conceptual metaphors based on gustatory perception. Among these, forty-eight metaphors rely on sweetness to express pleasure, joy, and positive experiences. Because children typically describe pleasant tastes using the notion of sweetness, poets employ the adjective sweet to convey concepts such as a good day, laughter, a smile, a story, a dream, or a pleasant feeling. Conversely, twenty metaphors draw on bitterness to represent negative, distressing, or unpleasant experiences—such as sound, moment, news, memory, or admonition.
An examination of the target domains shows that roughly thirty metaphors involve immaterial concepts and approximately thirty-eight involve material ones. Although expressions such as “sweet sound” or “sweet story” appear to associate both domains with material experience, the true target is the emotion or pleasure generated by the phenomenon, rather than the phenomenon itself. Consequently, overarching metaphors such as “Pleasure is a sweet substance” and “Unpleasant experience is a bitter substance” underlie all examples.
From a typological standpoint, all identified metaphors belong to the category of ontological metaphors, as poets render abstract emotional experiences in terms of tangible material entities. Children cannot directly conceptualize emotions such as pleasure or discomfort; however, through simple experiential analogues—such as eating something sweet or tasting something bitter—they gain concrete equivalents for various emotional states. Poets thus draw on these fundamental sensory experiences to make the complex world of emotions intelligible to young readers.
Conclusion
This study analyzed conceptual metaphors with gustatory source domains in thirty collections of children’s poetry. The findings indicate that approximately sixty-eight conceptual metaphors rely on gustatory percepts, with sweetness (48 instances) and bitterness (20 instances) serving as primary sources for conveying desirable and undesirable concepts. Accordingly, poets, drawing on children’s predominantly sweetness-oriented taste preferences, use sweet to conceptualize positive notions and bitter to express negative ones. The target domains include both material and immaterial concepts, with the material targets predominantly associated with auditory, visual, and olfactory perceptions.
Given that (1) most metaphors employ sweetness—the flavor most favored by children; (2) all metaphors belong to the ontological type, aligning with children’s worldview; and (3) the conceptualizations are grounded in the most tangible sensory percepts—those of taste—it may be concluded that the poets studied successfully harmonized their poetic atmosphere with children’s sensibilities, producing poetry that is joyful, appealing to children, and consistent with the child’s experiential and perceptual framework.

Abstract Abstract
The aim of this paper is to study transfer of Persian genitive construction  to speech and language of Azerbaijani speakers. Data have been collected from different Azerbaijani speakers (monolinguals and bilinguals) in Ardabil and they were classified according to different kinds of Persian genitive construction. At first frequency of data was determined in speakers' speech then they were analyzed following language contact views. Findings showed some of Persian genitive constructions are abundant in all speakers' speech, meanwhile some of them appeared only in bilinguals' speech. So Persian genitive construction transfer to Azerbaijani speakers' speech can be analyzed well due to codeswitchig-borrowing continuum that is the most suitable to explain language transfer. There was not any genitive construction among data consists of Azerbaijani native constituents combined by Persian genitive marker. So this kind of language transfer is matter borrowing. Persian genitive construction has not been borrowed as the pattern to Azerbaijani.
Key words: noun genitive, adjective genitive, Persian, Azerbaijani, language transfer
Introduction
Borrowing is a well-established term in linguistic studies that refers to the transfer of elements or structures from one language to another language or languages. All linguists consider the lexical borrowing as the most common type of borrowing meanwhile they declare the structures of languages resist against borrowing. According to Thomason and Kaufman (1988), structural borrowing occurs when the contact of languages is long and intensive. Observing the more use of Persian genitive construction (PGC) such as Meydan e Janbazan, Kuy e velayat and … by Azerbaijani individuals caused us to study these linguistic transfers from the perspective of Myers-Scotton (1993-2006), Matras (2009) and Gardani (2020) which have been famous in studies related to Language contact. Kasereyeh Ezafe is the marker used to connect two words or nouns together. Persian genitive construction is divided into two kinds: noun genitive and adjective genitive.
 
Material and Methods
The data of this study have been collected from the conversations or linguistic colloquialisms of Azerbaijani speakers in Ardabil province. 45 Azerbaijani speakers, consisting of three groups of 15 people: 1- Azerbaijani monolinguals 2- Ordinary bilinguals 3- Educated bilinguals were selected for interviews. All Persian noun genitive and adjective genitive constructions in Azerbaijani speakers’ speech were classified according to Tabatabaie’s taxonomy of Persian genitive constructions. Then the frequency of data use was determined and showed in two tables. 1115 different Persian genitive constructions were collected from the speech of Azerbaijani speakers (960 noun genitive and 155 adjective genitive). The data were analyzed from different perspectives in the field of language contact, so the present study was conducted in a descriptive-analytical manner.
Data analysis
 Noun genitive construction appeared in the speech of all types of speakers (Azerbaijani monolinguals, ordinary bilinguals and educated bilinguals), meanwhile adjective genitive construction only used by Azerbaijani-Persian bilinguals. Bayani Ezafe and Eghterani Ezafe with their frequencies being 304 and 12 respectively were the most and the least used Persian noun genitive constructions. Azerbaijani monolinguals only used 4 Persian noun genitive constructions (Bayani, Takhsisi, Melki and Tazimi) with more frequency and the other different Persian noun genitive constructions were not used by them. Also, the frequency of some Persian noun genitive constructions such as Eghterani Ezafe was very limited in the speech of ordinary bilinguals. The frequency of first 4 Persian noun genitive constructions (Bayani, Takhsisi, Melki and Tazimi) was high in the speech of all speakers.
Conclusion
Myers-Scotton (1993-2006) and Matras (2009) have proposed two important criteria to distinguish the borrowed elements from code-switched ones: 1- The borrowed elements are used by all speakers but  code-switched ones are only used by bilinguals. 2- The use frequency of  borrowed elements is very high in the speech of individuals. Considering these 2 criteria, some of Persian noun genitive constructions (Bayani, Takhsisi, Melki and Tazimi) are borrowed elements, meanwhile the other Persian noun genitive constructions and the adjective genitive construction appeared only in bilinguals' speech must be classified as code-switched elements. So PGC transfer to Azerbaijani speakers' speech can be analyzed well due to codeswitchig-borrowing continuum that is the most suitable to explain language transfer. There was not any genitive construction among data consists of Azerbaijani native constituents combined by Persian genitive marker. So according to Gardani (2020) this kind of language transfer is matter borrowing. PGC has not been borrowed as the pattern to Azerbaijani. Gradual transfer of PGC to speech of Azerbaijani speakers is result of unbalanced contact occurring between Persian and Azerbaijani. This phenomenon is considered very frequent in bilingual or multilingual societies by linguists.

Abstract Abstract This study examines the representation of truth and falsehood in the myth of Jamshid and Zahhak, arguing that these concepts are products of ideological mechanisms. Using a qualitative-analytical method grounded in Saussurean structural semiotics, Barthes’ mythological semiotics, and Greimas’ semiotic square of veridiction, the research models how ideology, through language, transforms inverted truth into perceived reality. The narrative is analyzed in three phases, tracing the semiotic degradation of Jamshid and the rise of Zahhak. The findings reveal that truth in the text is a discursive construct. Myths naturalize cultural falsehoods by foregrounding one pole of a binary opposition, rendering the original truth unattainable. A four-stage model of ideological transformation is proposed for textual analysis. Keywords: myth, falsehood, Shahnameh, semiotics, culture, ideology   1.                   Introduction Traditionally viewed as fixed moral constructs, truth and falsehood are analyzed here as dynamic signs produced within specific discursive and ideological contexts. In Iranian mythology, the opposition between them is a central narrative axis shaped by cultural power structures. This study employs Saussurean structural semiotics and Barthes’s theory of myth to deconstruct how values are naturalized within mythic discourse. As Shaeiri and Seyed Ebrahiminajad (2021) note, the semiotician's role is to foster societal awareness—an objective that aligns with this research. We investigate the linguistic and semiotic mechanisms behind the transformation of meaning, proposing a model for the ideological inversion of truth.   2.                    Materials and Methods The analysis is informed by three semiotic theories:   2.1. Language as a System of Differences (Saussure) Saussure posits that language is a system of relational differences where meaning emerges from binary oppositions (Saussure, 1403/2024). One pole typically gains positive value and dominance through cultural prioritization, a process central to the myth's value system. 2.2. Myth as Secondary Signification (Barthes) Barthes explains how dominant ideologies construct myth by transforming historical meanings into naturalized truths (Barthes, 1375/1996). This secondary signification renders ideological concepts self-evident and universal. 2.3. The Semiotic Square of Veridiction (Greimas) Greimas’s (1987) semiotic square of veridiction is used to analyze the logic of belief, concealment, and the transformation between truth and falsehood. This model is effective for identifying degrees of truth, falsification, and ideological manipulation within discourse.

This research adopts a qualitative, fundamental–analytic design. The semiotic method is drawing on narrative analysis. Data collection involves the text of the Shahnameh (Ferdowsi, 2007), analytical note-taking, and semiotic mapping systems to organize binary oppositions and interpretive categories.

3.                   Discussion and Results The myth is divided into three phases, analyzed through denotation, connotation, and mythic signification.   3.1.               Phase 1: Jamshid’s Era – The Stage of Truth Initially, Jamshid signifies sacred sovereignty aligned with Asha (cosmic truth). Signifiers like the royal throne and golden crown connote the continuity of a divine moral order and the union of heaven and earth. His just rule reflects cosmic harmony, where "justice = truth." 3.2.               Phase 2: Jamshid’s Era – Deviation from Truth Jamshid’s arrogance marks a semiotic shift. Signifiers like "I create art" and speeches of self-praise denote pride but connote a detachment from the divine source. The mythic signification is the "break from Asha," as sacred legitimacy corrupts into self-display and a claim of divinity. This deviation opens the narrative field for the anti-hero. 3.3.               Phase 3: Zahhak’s Era – Triumph of Falsehood Zahhak’s rule embodies the inversion. Signifiers like chaos, darkness, and his serpent-bodied kingship denote disorder but connote the collapse of the cosmic and social order. The mythic signification is the "triumph of Druj (falsehood)." Falsehood is no longer a deviation but becomes the dominant, naturalized truth within the cultural framework.   Proposed Model: Ideological Transformation of Truth The analysis reveals a four-stage mechanism through which ideology inverts meaning:

1. Ideological Injection: Ideology enters discourse through value-laden signifiers (e.g., "divine king" vs. "arrogant usurper").
2. Semiotic Legitimation: Signs are organized to normalize the imposed truth, anchoring it linguistically and conceptually.
3. Perceptual Displacement: Ideology replaces embodied sensory experience with its own constructed reality, obstructing direct perception.
4. Discursive Closure: Alternative meanings are suppressed, resulting in a single, dominant narrative that gains the status of unquestionable reality   4.                   Conclusions The myth of Jamshid and Zahhak operates through semantic asymmetry. Jamshid’s semiotic degradation from truth-bearer to a figure of pride enables Zahhak’s rise as an active generator of ideological meaning. Using Greimas’s models, we see that meaning emerges from dynamic relations involving the presence, absence, and inversion of conceptual categories, not merely binary contrasts.   The proposed four-stage model illustrates that the inversion of truth is a systematic process of ideological production. The moment a constructed narrative is stabilized as the only legitimate version of reality marks the emergence of falsehood as truth. This study concludes that truth in myth is a discursive and ideological construct. Myths function as cultural machinery that naturalize specific value systems, turning cultural falsehood into a perceived reality and rendering the original, transcendent truth an impossible concept. The model provides a theoretical basis for analyzing similar ideological transformations in other texts.  

Abstract Abstract
Lexicography is one of the oldest branches of linguistic studies, and dictionaries serve both descriptive and practical functions. This study examines the diversity and scope of dialect dictionaries published in Iran over the past century. To compile the dataset, the reports of the National Library of Iran were searched, and the resulting list was statistically analyzed with respect to publication date and linguistic variety. In total, 360 dialect dictionaries were identified. From 1300 to 1399 (Solar Hijri), the number of publications shows a general upward trend, with a marked rise in the 1380s, when the number of dictionaries tripled compared to the 1370s. The highest publication peaks occurred in 1394 and 1400. A noticeable decline between 1400 and the first half of 1402 appears to be linked to economic pressures on publishers, including increased costs of paper and books. Dictionaries of Kurdish varieties constitute the largest share (15%), followed by Lori (13%), Azari (8%), Mazandarani (6%), Tati (5%), Gilaki (5%), and varieties of Fars Province (5%). Other varieties each account for less than 5%. Given the size of Greater Khorasan and the dialect diversity in provinces such as Hormozgan, Markazi, Hamadan, and Arak, these regions hold considerable potential for further dialect documentation.
Keywords: dialect dictionaries, diversity, scope, time, language variety
Introduction
Lexicographic activity has a long-standing tradition both globally and in Iran. Early lexicographic practices can be traced back to cuneiform tablets from ancient Mesopotamia, while in the Iranian context, lexicography dates at least to Middle Persian works such as Farhang ī Ōīm-ēwak, believed to have been compiled around the third or fourth century AH. However, systematic and theoretically informed lexicography emerged primarily in the twentieth century, alongside the development of modern linguistics. During this period, dictionary types diversified, extending beyond monolingual and bilingual general dictionaries to include specialized dictionaries, learner dictionaries, electronic dictionaries, and, notably, dialect dictionaries.
Traditionally, dictionaries have been conceptualized as repositories of words arranged alphabetically and accompanied by definitions or translations. Later theoretical work in lexicography has emphasized that dictionary entries (headwords) may include not only single words but also multiword expressions, derivational forms, and idiomatic units. Moreover, modern lexicographic theory distinguishes between semasiological (meaning-oriented) and onomasiological (concept-oriented) approaches, with general-purpose monolingual dictionaries typically privileging the former. In contrast, dialect dictionaries often prioritize descriptive and documentary goals, aiming to capture linguistic forms and usages that are absent from the standard language.
 
Materials & Methods
The present research adopts a documentary (library-based) methodology. Data were collected through systematic searches of the website of the National Library of Iran, supplemented by broader online searches using general search engines. Keywords included Persian equivalents of dictionary, lexicon, glossary, and wordlist, as well as the names of specific Iranian languages and dialects. Based on these searches, a comprehensive list of dialect dictionaries published in Iran was compiled.
The resulting dataset consists of 360 dialect dictionaries. Each item was coded according to two independent variables: language/dialect and time of publication. Quantitative analyses were conducted to examine (a) the frequency of published dialect dictionaries across different decades and (b) the distribution of dictionaries across linguistic varieties. Statistical summaries and visualizations were generated using spreadsheet-based analytical tools.
 
Results & Discussion
The diachronic analysis reveals a general upward trend in the publication of dialect dictionaries from the early 1300s to the end of the 1390s (Solar Hijri calendar). A particularly sharp increase is observed in the 1380s, during which the number of published works more than tripled compared to the previous decade. The highest publication peaks occur in 1394 and subsequently in 1400. By contrast, a marked decline is evident from 1400 to mid-1402. This decrease is interpreted as a consequence of external economic factors, including rising publishing costs, inflation, and the increased price of paper, rather than a decline in scholarly interest.
From a linguistic perspective, the findings demonstrate an uneven distribution of dialect dictionaries across Iranian languages. Kurdish varieties account for approximately 15% of the total number of dictionaries, followed by Lori (13%), Azerbaijani (8%), Mazandarani (6%), and Tati and Gilaki (each 5%). Dialects spoken in Fars Province also constitute a notable portion of the dataset. In contrast, several regions with substantial internal dialect diversity—such as Greater Khorasan, Hormozgan, Markazi, and Hamadan—remain underrepresented. This imbalance points to significant gaps in the documentation of Iran’s linguistic diversity.
 
Conclusion
This study provides the first large-scale quantitative overview of dialect dictionaries in Iran based on bibliographic data from the National Library of Iran. The findings demonstrate that dialect lexicography has a long and productive history in Iran, with a clear increase in output over the past century. At the same time, the uneven linguistic and geographical distribution of these works highlights the need for more targeted documentation efforts. Future research should prioritize underrepresented regions and dialects and encourage sustained institutional support for dialect lexicography as a crucial component of linguistic and cultural heritage preservation.
 
Keywords
Dialect dictionaries of Iran; lexicography; linguistic diversity; language variety; diachronic distribution