Language Studies

Research original ,Regular Article Ancient Linguistics

Configuration of Iranian myths

ameneh zaheri abdollahvand

Volume 16, Issue 2 , October 2025, Pages 1-20

https://doi.org/10.30465/ls.2024.48623.2186

Abstract

Abstract The configuration and positioning of Iranian myths can introduce us to the place of these myths among the myths of different nations. The special and very influential position of Iranian myths has made these myths an exceptional and difficult figure that can be seen in the myths of other ... Read More Abstract The configuration and positioning of Iranian myths can introduce us to the place of these myths among the myths of different nations. The special and very influential position of Iranian myths has made these myths an exceptional and difficult figure that can be seen in the myths of other nations. Iranian myths can be used as a key to understanding other myths because there is no concept, theme, or feature that is missing in Iranian myths. This article emphasizes on three themes, the origin and functions of Iranian myths based on modern mythological studies. The characteristics of Iranian mythology and knowing its mythological sources and its foundations, a general picture of Iranian myths has been obtained in this article. In the text of this article, the study of Iranian mythological geography and the division of Iranian myths into old and new, the foundations and special characteristics of Iranian mythology and Finally, the recognition of mythological sources emphasizes. Proving independence and being stable based on Iranian ideas and beliefs and opposing any copying of Iranian mythology are among the things he mentioned in this article.IntroductionAccording to the opinions of mythologists of the 19th and 20th centuries about the concept of myth, a precise definition of this word has not been found so far. But the researchers tried to provide a precise definition by examining the origin, thematics and mythological functions. It seems that the thinkers of this field were able to achieve this definition in the 20th century, although the opposition continues, but they have accepted that myth is acceptable and inevitable for all human societies. Iranian myths, which is the most important part of this article, is considered one of the most challenging and controversial myths of the nations due to the wide range of topics and numerous and scattered criticisms, and this article is trying to find a way to know the characteristics, functions and divisions of myths. make Iranian mythology smooth.Materials and research methodIn addition to the introduction, which deals with the general topics of mythology, this article deals with the four main topics of knowing and investigating the geography of Iranian myths, dividing Iranian myths into old and new, the foundations and special characteristics of Iranian mythology, and finally, the knowledge of mythological sources. In the study of the geography of Iranian myths, firstly, the natural geographical position of Iran and the importance of this position as a cultural crossing between the three cultures of the Mesopotamia, Trans-Nether and Indus have been discussed, and then this geographical position has been examined from the mythological point of view. Collecting first-hand and reliable sources in the field of Iranian mythology and categorizing these sources based on the topic of which part of Iranian mythology each of these works are concerned with has been considered in the research method. In the third part, which is the examination of the main themes and special features of Iranian mythology, it is given as the most important part of the article.Discussions In this first article, the general discussions and opinions of the mythologists of the 19th and 20th centuries and their views on the word myth and giving a precise and scientific definition of it are given in the introduction of the article. The second is the discussion of the main titles, which was first discussed about the natural geographical location and then the mythological geography. The position of the land of Iran in Iranian mythology is in the middle region, i.e. Bloody. Therefore, the land of Iranwij has a privileged position in mythology, because from a mythological point of view, being in the middle of Iran can mean that it is important in creation.The third topic of this article is the author's comments about the characteristics and foundations of Iranian mythology. Features such as flexibility, purposefulness, dualism, choice and free will, preciousness of material life, etc., he considered Iranian mythology to be rare among the myths of nations in terms of structure, or perhaps unique.The fourth discussion is about the division of Iranian myths. This article has divided these myths into two parts, new and old. In the old part, they still maintain their cultural and religious affiliations with the Aryan tribes before the migration. These myths are generally designed in the form of cosmic battles and natural phenomena, the battle of gods and amazing actions and breaking the habit that show manifestations of the power and violence of nature, while in the new myths that are based on written and oral sources in the form of a coherent plan and It is presented as a single set. Mythological sources are mostly Zoroastrian, although sometimes there is a mixture of other religions or beliefs such as Zoroastrianism, Manoism and Christianity.The fifth topic is sourceology and the sources are divided into Iranian and non-Iranian groups. Non-Iranian sources mainly due to cultural and ethnic commonalities include Indian, Manuscript, Islamic and Arabic sources and Iranian sources such as Avesta texts, Pahlavi language and other texts that have been widely discussed.ConclusionThe first targeted point is to reach a complete and inclusive model of myths in the form of Iranian myths because this model can only be seen in Iranian myths. Mentioning the essences and characteristics of Iranian mythology provides a platform for understanding that mythological commonalities should not lead us in a wrong direction and false belief and let us accept that Iranian myths are copied from other nations, especially West Asian nations. Defending independence in processing and presenting Iranian myths is the main and ultimate goal of this article because the author believes that the wisdom of Iranians is quite evident even in the formation of their myths.

Research original ,Regular Article General linguistics

Focus marker 'ki' in Azeri Turkish

Sa'eed Moharrami Gheydari; Mohammad Reza Oroji; Houman Bijani

Volume 16, Issue 2 , October 2025, Pages 21-48

https://doi.org/10.30465/ls.2024.48046.2175

Abstract

AbstractThe Azerbaijani Turkish language, due to its proximity to the Persian language, has been influenced by it; not only lexical units but also grammatical elements have entered the borrowing language and have subsequently undergone phonological, semantic, and syntactic changes (Mahmoudi, 2021, p.3). ... Read More AbstractThe Azerbaijani Turkish language, due to its proximity to the Persian language, has been influenced by it; not only lexical units but also grammatical elements have entered the borrowing language and have subsequently undergone phonological, semantic, and syntactic changes (Mahmoudi, 2021, p.3). One of the elements that has entered Azerbaijani Turkish is the particle ki. In Azerbaijani Turkish, the element ki is used not only as a relative pronoun and complementizer but also as a focus marker. In this study, we will first examine the particle ke in Persian, and then analyze its representation in the target language, Azerbaijani Turkish. After analyzing its discourse function as a focus marker, we will draw tree diagrams for it based on the Minimalist Program.Key words: Azeri Turkish, focalization, focus, focus marker, topicalization IntroductionAzerbaijani Turkish also uses a focus marker to indicate the prominence of a given constituent. In the following, we will focus solely on the representation of the focus marker kɪ in Azerbaijani Turkish. This study aims to answer the following questions: "What is the representation of the focus marker kɪ in Azerbaijani Turkish?" and "Is the movement of a constituent to the beginning of the sentence in Azerbaijani Turkish for focalization or topicalization?" Materials & MethodsIn this study, the representation of the element ki in Azerbaijani Turkish was investigated. For data collection, plays, series, and films in Turkish broadcast on the local Ishraq network of Zanjan were used. Every sentence containing the element ki was extracted and categorized based on the linguistic intuition of the authors. As will be discussed in the data analysis section, the element ki in Azerbaijani Turkish can function both as a complementizer and as a relative pronoun. Also, similar to Persian, ki can act as a focus marker; it can attach to multiple constituents and focus them in situ. An interview method was also used to collect data: native Zanjani speakers, particularly in the adult age range (40–70 years), were given Persian sentences containing the element (ki) and were asked to translate them into fluent Turkish. The reason younger generations were not used was that they tend to speak Persian more and are more influenced by it. To minimize this influence, the adult age group was asked to cooperate. As mentioned, both field and library methods were used in the present research. For collecting theoretical and descriptive background studies, the library method was primarily used. All transcriptions in this research were prepared according to the 2005 edition of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Furthermore, the focus-marked sentences involving the element ki were analyzed within the framework of the Minimalist Program. Discussion and ResultsAs outlined in the introduction and data analysis, Azerbaijani Turkish is influenced by Persian in certain respects. Various elements in Turkish are borrowed from Persian. One such borrowing is the element ki, which functions as a complementizer, relative pronoun, and focus marker. As mentioned earlier, the research data were collected from various sources, including films and local TV series from Zanjan, as well as interviews with elderly residents of Zanjan. Participants were given sentences in Persian and asked to express them fluently in Turkish. As stated in the introduction, the Persian focus marker ke can attach to any constituent—regardless of its syntactic role or information structure (whether new or given)—and highlight it (Oroji, 2012; Oroji & Rezaei, 2013). Similarly, in Azerbaijani Turkish, it was shown that the focus marker ki can attach to any constituent and highlight it. As Mahmoudi (2021) also asserts, the constituent marked with ki will carry contrastive focus. Contrastive focus is marked by the features [+new, +prominent] (Rasakh-Mohand, 2003). However, as previously shown, contrastive focus may also carry old information (Oroji, 2012). Examples and diagrams 25 to 30 demonstrated that various constituents—including subject, object, locative adverbials, temporal adverbials, and even entire sentences—can take the focus marker ki and become highlighted. Additionally, noun phrases, prepositional phrases, and verbs can be used with the ki element. ConclusionsThus, as in Persian (Oroji, 2012), in Turkish any constituent can be highlighted in-situ by this focus marker. Based on sentence 30, it can be said that the ki-marked constituent is first highlighted in place and then moves to the specifier position of the topic node for further prominence. This is because, beyond greater prominence, it becomes a topic, making the rest of the sentence about it (Lambrecht, 1994). That is, the topicalized constituent can also be the focus, and being a topic and focus are not mutually exclusive. However, based on the principle of linguistic economy and the application of Occam’s Razor to redundancy, and contrary to the views of Rizzi (2001) and Karimi (2005), the presence of both topic and focus nodes at the beginning of a sentence is not economical. Instead, one can assume a single functional node—the topic node—in the left periphery. The findings of this study confirm those of Oroji (2012), Oroji & Rezaei (2013), and Adrang (2019).

Research original ,Regular Article Ancient Linguistics

The seed of light in the hands of the conscious farmer; A review of two Parthian parables about agriculture

zohre zarshenas; Sima Fouladpour

Volume 16, Issue 2 , October 2025, Pages 49-76

https://doi.org/10.30465/ls.2022.39471.2027

Abstract

Abstractin ascetic and gnostic religions which encourage the abandonment of all pleasures and benefits of material life, agriculture is among the activities that should be abandoned; this view reaches its peak in Manichaean religion with the prohibition of agriculture for the electi. In this article, ... Read More Abstractin ascetic and gnostic religions which encourage the abandonment of all pleasures and benefits of material life, agriculture is among the activities that should be abandoned; this view reaches its peak in Manichaean religion with the prohibition of agriculture for the electi. In this article, we intend to introduce and study Manichaean parables and texts containing agricultural motifs. Through describing the position of agriculture in Manichaean society and studying its literary use, we aim to compare the positive usages of the motif of agriculture in Manichaean literary texts with those orders which do not consider it as positive. Keywords: Manichaean religion, Manichaean literature, agriculture, farmer, Parable IntroductionManichaeism is classified as a "book" religion, founded by an Mani who meticulously documented its rules and beliefs in written texts. The followers of this tradition have also engaged in the preservation of these works, viewing it as a religious obligation. Given the significant role of social life depicted within these writings, we chose to explore "agriculture" as a key aspect of Iranian social life. In this article, we analyze fragments that vividly illustrate rural life and agricultural activities, such as sowing seeds, harvesting crops, threshing grains, and potentially irrigating farmland. These descriptions appear to reflect the daily lives of believers and are worthy of clear attention, despite the understanding that agriculture was deemed undesirable and prohibited among the Manichaeans. This contradiction between the doctrines and the allegorical references raises the question of whether the agricultural motif was employed because these fragments pertain to non-believers (kafirs) or if it was used with a positive connotation. We will explore the characteristics of the agricultural motif found in Manichaean texts and examine how this theme was utilized, as it can greatly contribute to understanding and analyzing the methods of Manichaean propaganda. Materials & MethodsThe foundation of our study consists of two nearly complete Parthian allegories, both titled “Speech about the Unbelievers,” as published by Colditz (2011). The first allegory is a Parthian text made up of fragments M 499, M 706, and M 334b. It commences with an introduction to the allegory, which is structured similarly to Manichaean sermons. The theme appears to revolve around the two foundations, particularly highlighting the consequences stemming from the realm of darkness. This parable illustrates how the power of darkness adversely affects the souls of its followers, trapping them in the cycle of rebirth. The second parable consists of two fragments, M 332 and M 724, which converge at the break between lines 9 and 10. It recounts a farming tale in which a farmer sows good seed and initially harvests a bountiful yield. However, as time passes, he neglects the land or is unable to tend to it, allowing thorns and weeds to overtake the area. Subsequently, someone introduces poison, ultimately rendering the plants harmful. This land lies along the path of passersby, who are split into two groups: the sighted and the blind. The sighted consume only the healthy grains, while the blind partake of the poisonous fruits, ignoring the thorns and disregarding the warnings from the sighted, firmly believing that the land still produces good crops as it did in the past. Additionally, we conducted a more detailed investigation into other Manichaean texts for similar allegories and motifs, discovering two Middle Persian fragments, a Parthian fragment, as well as examples from Coptic and Greek texts that address agricultural themes. Discussion & ResultIn the two allegories discussed above, both the farmer and the various activities related to agriculture, as well as the products derived from it, are addressed. One significant element is the farmer himself, who, in several passages, is identified with Mani, the Manichaean elect, as well as the prophets and apostles. When interpreting the agricultural landscape, it is advisable to align with Sundermann’s interpretation of fragment M 500 c, which he regards as a Manichaean church or Manistān. In the examined texts, all three primary activities of sowing, threshing, and harvesting are mentioned, though they are not all given equal emphasis. Notably, the Coptic Kephalion I provides a detailed discussion of all three activities. Additionally, the seed is associated with positive attributes of virtue and abundance, suggesting that, given favorable and fertile land, it will yield a fruitful crop.The elements related to agriculture found in various Manichaean texts create a distinct discursive system that places the seed or grain at its core. In the allegories we have analyzed, the acts of sowing and harvesting this seed hold particular significance. Sowing the seed symbolizes the propagation and spread of religion, while the harvested grain can be regarded as the codes of light encapsulated within particles of matter. Here, the grain represents what must be disseminated and cultivated for light to triumph over darkness. Consequently, agriculture serves as a practice that fosters the spread and strengthening of religion, ultimately laying the foundation for light. Thus, farmers embody virtuous individuals, ranging from the selfish to the chosen ones, who strive toward this ideal. Their success, however, hinges on the quality and suitability of the land they cultivate. Furthermore, just as a field encounters challenges and difficulties without a farmer's care, a religious community may experience internal conflicts and distortions following the prophet's departure.Conclusion It appears that the Manichaeans, despite the religious restrictions surrounding agriculture, utilized it as a tool and a means of propaganda to convey their teachings, capitalizing on the audience's familiarity with and understanding of agricultural concepts. Analyzing their use of this theme reveals a predominantly positive connotation. Although the two parables from Parthia focus on unbelievers and infidels, the effectiveness of employing the agricultural motif does not seem to be undermined. It is likely that the social significance of agriculture, especially in societies dominated by agricultural economies, along with the general public’s familiarity with the subject, were key factors in its selection for inclusion in Manichaean texts. Ultimately, the clarity and comprehension of the topic seem to have been prioritized over any positive or negative implications associated with it.

Compound Sentences in Persian (An RRG-Based Analysis)

Volume 3, Issue 5 , September 2013, , Pages 1-25

Abstract

This paper undertakes to describe “Compound Sentences” in Modern Persian (Farsi) based on Functional Syntactic theory of “Role and Reference Grammar”. First, it describes the foundation of RRG theory which is presented in 1997 by Robert D. Van Valin Jr. and Randy J. Lapolla and ... Read More

Differences between Spoken and Written Persian in Teaching Speaking to Non-Persian Speakers

Volume 4, Issue 8 , October 2014, , Pages 115-140

https://doi.org/.

Abstract

The present paperhas considered speaking in language teaching and studied both traditional and modern teaching approaches. The researcher has focused on teaching Persian to non-Persian speakers from elementary to advanced levels and has emphasized the significant differences of spoken and written ... Read More

Spoken and Written Variants in Teaching Persian Language to non-Persian Speakers

Volume 3, Issue 6 , February 2013, , Pages 45-68

Abstract

The most important practical distinction of language derived from the medium of expression is that of speech and writing which produces the spoken and written variants, observed more or less in all the languages. The differences of the two variants depend on the distance or proximity of the spoken from ... Read More

Argument Structure of the Persian Derivational Words

Volume 1, Issue 1 , June 2010, , Pages 57-74

Abstract

Argument Structure (AS) of a Predicate is a list of its arguments. For example the Persian verb xord (ate) in "Ali sib ra xord." Has two arguments, while the verb dād (gave) in "Ali sib rā be Zahrā dād." has three arguments: Ali, Sib, and Zahrā. The argument structure of a verb is usually changed ... Read More

A Cognitive Approach to Surveying Child Literary Texts

Volume 1, Issue 2 , March 2011, , Pages 1-25

Abstract

One of the interdeciplenaries that applies cognitive linguistics is cognitive poetics. Cognitive poetics deals with the relationship between mind and literary texts. In this approach, literature is not separate from language, and understanding literature is based on our knowledge from the real world. ... Read More

Research original ,Regular Article

A Research on the Structure and Content of a Christian Monasticism's Sermon

Masumeh Samieizadeh; zohre zarshenas

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 08 December 2021

https://doi.org/10.30465/ls.2021.38706.2012

Abstract

Abstract Sogdian was originally the language used in the Zarafshan Valley, but gradually, it became the administrative and commercial language of vast areas in Central Asia, and many peoples, from the western borders of China to the eastern borders of Iran, used it as a lingua franca. There are many ... Read More

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Research original ,Regular Article

The Study of the Morpho-phonological Processes of Six Cases in Nouns in Azeri Turkish Zanjani Dialect based on Optimality Theory

Farnaz Ebadi; Mohammad Reza Oroji; Sakineh Jafari; Mehri Talkhabi

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 19 June 2024

https://doi.org/10.30465/ls.2023.44857.2121

Abstract

At the present study, the morpho-phonological processes of different cases of nouns in Azeri Turkish, Zanjani Dialect were studied based on Optimality Theory (Prince & Smolenski, 1993). This was a descriptive-analytical study and was based on interviews with native speakers of Zanjan, Iran. Azeri ... Read More

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Research original ,Regular Article

Examining the position and function of the daēnā- in Avesta and its connection with cistā-

Fahimeh Shafiei Mohamadabadi; Zohreh Zarshenas; Farzaneh Goshtasb

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 08 July 2024

https://doi.org/10.30465/ls.2024.47321.2163

Abstract

The Avestan word daēnā- literally means “perception, vision, view, insight, self, conscience and even religion.” Yašt 16, dēn yašt is named after daēnā māzdaiiasnī-, although in its content it is dedicated to cistā. cistā is a goddess of path. The epithets ascribed ... Read More

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Research original ,Regular Article

Comparison of Phrases of the tā.vǝ̄.urvātā Chapter of the Waršt-Mānsar Nask from the 9th Book of Dēnkard with the 31st Hāt of the Yasna and its Zand

Poorchista Goshtasbi Ardakany; zohreh zarshenas; Farzaneh Goshtasb

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 28 October 2024

https://doi.org/10.30465/ls.2024.49744.2194

Abstract

The 9th book of Dēnkard includes three Gāhānīg Nasks which are SūdgarNask, Waršt-MānsarNask and BaγNask.In this research, the 8th chapter of Waršt-MānsarNask, which is called tā.vǝ̄.urvātā, is examined, and its contents are compared with the 31st Hāt of the Yasna, which ... Read More

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Research original ,Regular Article

The Study of Disjuctive Coordination in Persian Language

Jalal Ahmadkhani; Mohammad Reza Oroji; Sakineh Jafari

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 15 March 2025

https://doi.org/10.30465/ls.2025.49751.2195

Abstract

The purpose of this article was to examine the possibilities of the Persian language to express disjunctive constructions. In case of using coordinators, Persian language uses three types of it, which are: simple, compound and discrete . Our aim in the present study was to identify Persian disjunctive ... Read More

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Research original ,Regular Article

"The Institution of Kingship and Its Correlation with the Sun God in Iranian Literature (from the Avesta to Early New Persian Poetry and Prose Texts)"

Yasna Aflaki; Jaleh Amouzegar Yeganeh; Ameneh Zaheri Abdwand

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 12 October 2025

https://doi.org/10.30465/ls.2025.51220.2204

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to explore the relationship and connection between the sun, as an ancient deity, and the institution of kingship in Iranian texts. This study is text-based and follows a historical pattern. The relationship between the sun deity and kingship starts with the oldest remaining ... Read More

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Volume 7 (2016)

Volume 6 (2015)

Volume 5 (2014)

Volume 4 (2014)

Volume 3 (2012)

Volume 2 (2011)

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