Abstract
in ascetic and gnostic religions which encourage the abandonment of all pleasures and benefits of material life, agriculture is among the activities that should be abandoned; this view reaches its peak in Manichaean religion with the prohibition of agriculture for the electi. In this article, we intend to introduce and study Manichaean parables and texts containing agricultural motifs. Through describing the position of agriculture in Manichaean society and studying its literary use, we aim to compare the positive usages of the motif of agriculture in Manichaean literary texts with those orders which do not consider it as positive.
 
Keywords: Manichaean religion, Manichaean literature, agriculture, farmer, Parable
 
Introduction
Manichaeism is classified as a "book" religion, founded by an Mani who meticulously documented its rules and beliefs in written texts. The followers of this tradition have also engaged in the preservation of these works, viewing it as a religious obligation. Given the significant role of social life depicted within these writings, we chose to explore "agriculture" as a key aspect of Iranian social life. In this article, we analyze fragments that vividly illustrate rural life and agricultural activities, such as sowing seeds, harvesting crops, threshing grains, and potentially irrigating farmland. These descriptions appear to reflect the daily lives of believers and are worthy of clear attention, despite the understanding that agriculture was deemed undesirable and prohibited among the Manichaeans. This contradiction between the doctrines and the allegorical references raises the question of whether the agricultural motif was employed because these fragments pertain to non-believers (kafirs) or if it was used with a positive connotation. We will explore the characteristics of the agricultural motif found in Manichaean texts and examine how this theme was utilized, as it can greatly contribute to understanding and analyzing the methods of Manichaean propaganda.
 
Materials & Methods
The foundation of our study consists of two nearly complete Parthian allegories, both titled “Speech about the Unbelievers,” as published by Colditz (2011). The first allegory is a Parthian text made up of fragments M 499, M 706, and M 334b. It commences with an introduction to the allegory, which is structured similarly to Manichaean sermons. The theme appears to revolve around the two foundations, particularly highlighting the consequences stemming from the realm of darkness. This parable illustrates how the power of darkness adversely affects the souls of its followers, trapping them in the cycle of rebirth. The second parable consists of two fragments, M 332 and M 724, which converge at the break between lines 9 and 10. It recounts a farming tale in which a farmer sows good seed and initially harvests a bountiful yield. However, as time passes, he neglects the land or is unable to tend to it, allowing thorns and weeds to overtake the area. Subsequently, someone introduces poison, ultimately rendering the plants harmful. This land lies along the path of passersby, who are split into two groups: the sighted and the blind. The sighted consume only the healthy grains, while the blind partake of the poisonous fruits, ignoring the thorns and disregarding the warnings from the sighted, firmly believing that the land still produces good crops as it did in the past. Additionally, we conducted a more detailed investigation into other Manichaean texts for similar allegories and motifs, discovering two Middle Persian fragments, a Parthian fragment, as well as examples from Coptic and Greek texts that address agricultural themes.
 
 
Discussion & Result
In the two allegories discussed above, both the farmer and the various activities related to agriculture, as well as the products derived from it, are addressed. One significant element is the farmer himself, who, in several passages, is identified with Mani, the Manichaean elect, as well as the prophets and apostles. When interpreting the agricultural landscape, it is advisable to align with Sundermann’s interpretation of fragment M 500 c, which he regards as a Manichaean church or Manistān. In the examined texts, all three primary activities of sowing, threshing, and harvesting are mentioned, though they are not all given equal emphasis. Notably, the Coptic Kephalion I provides a detailed discussion of all three activities. Additionally, the seed is associated with positive attributes of virtue and abundance, suggesting that, given favorable and fertile land, it will yield a fruitful crop.
The elements related to agriculture found in various Manichaean texts create a distinct discursive system that places the seed or grain at its core. In the allegories we have analyzed, the acts of sowing and harvesting this seed hold particular significance. Sowing the seed symbolizes the propagation and spread of religion, while the harvested grain can be regarded as the codes of light encapsulated within particles of matter. Here, the grain represents what must be disseminated and cultivated for light to triumph over darkness. Consequently, agriculture serves as a practice that fosters the spread and strengthening of religion, ultimately laying the foundation for light. Thus, farmers embody virtuous individuals, ranging from the selfish to the chosen ones, who strive toward this ideal. Their success, however, hinges on the quality and suitability of the land they cultivate. Furthermore, just as a field encounters challenges and difficulties without a farmer's care, a religious community may experience internal conflicts and distortions following the prophet's departure.
Conclusion
It appears that the Manichaeans, despite the religious restrictions surrounding agriculture, utilized it as a tool and a means of propaganda to convey their teachings, capitalizing on the audience's familiarity with and understanding of agricultural concepts. Analyzing their use of this theme reveals a predominantly positive connotation. Although the two parables from Parthia focus on unbelievers and infidels, the effectiveness of employing the agricultural motif does not seem to be undermined. It is likely that the social significance of agriculture, especially in societies dominated by agricultural economies, along with the general public’s familiarity with the subject, were key factors in its selection for inclusion in Manichaean texts. Ultimately, the clarity and comprehension of the topic seem to have been prioritized over any positive or negative implications associated with it.